The Four Stages of Learning

Acquisition

The dog understands that the cue is a request for a behavior, understands what that behavior is, and is able to produce the behavior.

Fluency

The dog produces the cued behavior regularly and quickly. He no longer has to struggle to think through what to do when he is asked.

Generalization

The dog learns that the cue and the behavior remain the same in a variety of locations, for a variety of people, and in spite of a variety of imprecise cues (for example, the handler may wear different clothes, give the cue from a sitting instead of a standing position, speak the cue loudly or softly).

Maintenance

The behavior is practiced frequently enough to prevent a decrease in proficiency or potential extinction. (If the cue isn't practiced, the dog will forget what behavior is expected from the cue.)

Conditioning

Operant conditioning/learning

The process by which behavior changes occur related to the outcome of chosen behaviors. Behaviors that result in positive outcomes are likely to increase or remain the same. Behaviors that produce negative or unproductive outcomes are likely to decrease. There are four categories of outcomes that can affect learning:

• positive reinforcement,
• negative reinforcement,
• positive punishment,
• and negative punishment.

Positive and negative reinforcement support or strengthen the behavior. Positive and negative punishment discourage or weaken the behavior.

Classical conditioning

Associations formed between paired events that are not dependent upon choice. In Pavlov's famous example, the natural salivation that occurs when dogs are presented with food became associated with the sound of a bell that was rung when food was being served. The result of this pairing was that the sound of the bell produced salivation even when no food was present.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement

In training, reinforcement can be positive or negative. Reinforcement always supports or strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood of it occurring.

Positive reinforcement

In training, "positive" means "added to." If you give a dog a treat when he sits, you have added something reinforcing (the treat) to the outcome of the behavior.

Negative reinforcement

In training, "negative" means "removed from" or "taken away." A human example would be if you discovered that pushing a button on your phone stopped the Muzak when you were on hold. Pushing the button would be negative reinforcement because something unpleasant was removed from the situation.

Premack Principle

In behavioral psychology, the Premack Principle states that a desirable behavior can be used to reinforce a less desirable one. This is commonly referred to as Grandma's rule: "After you eat your vegetables, you can have ice cream."

Unconditioned reinforcer

Also called a primary or natural reinforcer, these are things that are valuable or desired in themselves (e.g., food, water, play, affection). These are not the same for all individuals or even the same individual at all times. Examples:

• A shy dog may experience an affectionate pat as punishment.
• After a Thanksgiving meal, we may fnd the thought of more food unpleasant.

Conditioned reinforcer

A neutral stimulus that has become reinforcing by pairing it with a natural or existing reinforcer. The bell in Pavlov's experiment or a whistle in dolphin training are neutral until they become associated with the dog's food and fish, respectively.

Punishment

Punishment, which can also be positive or negative (meaning that something is added or something is taken away), is a consequence that causes a behavior to be less likely to occur in the future. For punishment to be effective, it must be precisely timed, immediately and consistently presented, and of sufficient intensity relative to the appeal of the behavior and its normal outcome.

Positive Punishment

The introduction of an unpleasant element as a consequence of an unwanted behavior. Examples:

• A dog is pulling on the leash and a leash correction (sharp jerk of the leash) is given.
• A dog nears the edge of the yard and an "invisible fence" causes a shock through his collar.

Negative punishment

The removal of a desirable element as a consequence of an unwanted behavior. An example is leaving the area when a dog is being jumpy or mouthy. The desirable element that you are removing is your attention and interaction with the dog.

Conditioned punisher

A neutral stimulus that takes on an unpleasant connotation. For example, if you say "time out" right before you put a dog in a time-out (a crate or spare room), the sound of the words alone can become associated in the dog's mind with the consequence and may decrease the behavior.

Remote punisher

An unpleasant consequence that can be employed without your presence. automatic bark collars, flappers on a counter top, and bitter tasting substances applied to discourage chewing are examples of remote punishers.

Other Useful Definitions

Capturing

Rewarding a behavior that occurs spontaneously. Most training involves behaviors that occur naturally, and we reinforce them to suit our own purposes. Dogs already sit, lie down, wag their tails and raise their paws before we begin to work with them.

Chaining

Teaching multiple simple behaviors in sequence to produce a more complicated behavior. One simple example is teaching a dog to ask for a walk by teaching him to hold his leash, then to carry the leash, and then to carry it to the door and sit. A more complicated example would be teaching a dog to run an agility course.

Counter-conditioning

A method of changing a response to a "trigger" or stimuli, usually by introducing a positive element into the situation. For example, a dog who lunges at a stranger across a fence can be conditioned to like the approach of a stranger by setting up training sessions in which the stranger tosses a high-value treat to the dog each time he approaches.

Counter-cueing

Cueing a well-established behavior that is incompatible with an unwanted behavior. An example is cueing a "sit" when a dog is jumping up. If the "sit" produces a more positive outcome, it can replace the jumping behavior.

Cue

Anything that serves as a signal to request a specific behavior. A cue is a way of asking for a response from a dog. (The terms "command" and "order" are misleading because they do not compel a behavior to occur. The dog still has the power to choose his response.)

Desensitization

The process of presenting a weak version of a problem stimulus at a level and duration that does not produce a negative reaction and gradually increasing the intensity as the dog's comfort level grows. An example is playing recordings of the sounds of thunderstorms at low volume, to begin desensitizing a dog to thunderstorms.

Displacement behaviors

Behaviors that are performed out of their normal context. An anxious dog may yawn, stretch or drink water, even though she is neither tired nor thirsty.

Ethology

The study of animal behavior, which includes human behavior. It is often used when referring to natural behaviors in an evolutionary context.

Extinction

In operant conditioning, extinction refers to the elimination of a behavior that fails to produce desirable results. Ignoring a behavior such as pawing or jumping can lead to extinction of that behavior. Unlike the biological extinction of a species, however, an "extinct" behavior can reappear if it once again produces successful results.

Flooding

In contrast to desensitization, flooding is a behavioral technique that involves exposure to an aversive stimulus at full intensity until habituation occurs (i.e., the animal no longer reacts to the stimulus). There is debate about the use of this technique, but it is not operant conditioning. The subject must endure the aversive stimulus until it is removed; there is no behavior the dog can choose that will make it go away.

Head halter

Inspired by the lessons learned with larger, more powerful animals like horses. A head halter can reduce the amount of physical effort required to manage a strong dog. Head halters are sometimes mistaken for muzzles, but they aren't muzzles. Head halters do not restrict a dog's ability to bite.

Jackpot

Giving a large reward (e.g., lots of treats, tons of praise) when there is a breakthrough in training.

Lure training

Using a high-value "lure," such as treats or toys, to produce a behavior that can then be rewarded.

Physical prompts

An outmoded technique that involves using physical force to produce a behavior. Examples are pushing a dog down into a sit or reeling in a dog to make him come.

Proofing

Practicing a behavior in different environments and situations, until the dog generalizes the desired behavior and can do it anywhere, even with distractions.

Shaping

Similar to chaining, except the "simple behaviors" are small steps toward what is often considered a single behavior. For example, getting a dog to respond to a "down" cue may be shaped by luring and rewarding "head lowering," then "elbow bending," then ³body on the Àoor.'